Silabus adalah rencana pembelajaran pada suatu dan/atau kelompok mata pelajaran/tema tertentu yang mencakup standar kompetensi, kompetensi dasar, materi pokok/pembelajaran, kegiatan pembelajaran, indikator pencapaian kompetensi untuk penilaian, penilaian, alokasi waktu dan sumber belajar.
Sumber : Sosialisasi KTSP Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Prinsip Pengembangan Silabus
1. Ilmiah
2. Relevan
3. Sistematis
4. Konsisten
5. Memadai
6. Aktual dan Kontekstual
7. Fleksibel
8. Menyeluruh
Referensi: Buku “Panduan Penyusunan Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan” BSNP, Jakarta 2006 Halaman 19.
Rabu, 27 April 2011
Pengertian dan Definisi RPP
Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran (RPP) adalah Rencana yang menggambarkan Prosedur dan pengorganisasian pembelajaran untuk mencapai satu kompetensi dasar yang ditetapkan dalam Standar Isi dan dijabarkan dalam silabus.
RPP dijabarkan dari silabus untuk mengarahkan kegiatan belajar peserta didik dalam upaya mencapai KD. Setiap guru pada satuan pendidikan berkewajiban menyusun RPP secara lengkap dan sistematis agar pembelajaran berlangsung secara interaktif, inspiratif, menyenangkan, menantang, memotivasi peserta didik untuk berpartisipasi aktif, serta memberikan ruang yang cukup bagi prakarsa, kreativitas, dan kemandirian sesuai dengan bakat, minat, dan perkembangan fisik serta psikologis peserta didik.
RPP disusun untuk setiap KD yang dapat dilaksanakan dalam satu kali pertemuan atau lebih. Guru merancang penggalan RPP untuk setiap pertemuan yang disesuaikan dengan penjadwalan di satuan pendidikan.
Lingkup Rencana Pembelajaran
Paling luas mencakup 1 (satu) kompetensi dasar yang terdiri atas 1 (satu)indikator atau beberapa indikator untuk 1(satu)kali pertemuan atau lebih.
Landasan RPP
Menurut PP No.19 Tahun 2005 Pasal 20 Landasan RPP adalah : Perencanaan Proses Pembelajaran meliputi silabus dan rencana pelaksanaan pembelajaran (RPP) yang memuat sekurang-kurangnya tujuan pembelajaran, materi pembelajaran, metode pengajaran, sumber belajar dan penilaian hasil belajar.
RPP dijabarkan dari silabus untuk mengarahkan kegiatan belajar peserta didik dalam upaya mencapai KD. Setiap guru pada satuan pendidikan berkewajiban menyusun RPP secara lengkap dan sistematis agar pembelajaran berlangsung secara interaktif, inspiratif, menyenangkan, menantang, memotivasi peserta didik untuk berpartisipasi aktif, serta memberikan ruang yang cukup bagi prakarsa, kreativitas, dan kemandirian sesuai dengan bakat, minat, dan perkembangan fisik serta psikologis peserta didik.
RPP disusun untuk setiap KD yang dapat dilaksanakan dalam satu kali pertemuan atau lebih. Guru merancang penggalan RPP untuk setiap pertemuan yang disesuaikan dengan penjadwalan di satuan pendidikan.
Lingkup Rencana Pembelajaran
Paling luas mencakup 1 (satu) kompetensi dasar yang terdiri atas 1 (satu)indikator atau beberapa indikator untuk 1(satu)kali pertemuan atau lebih.
Landasan RPP
Menurut PP No.19 Tahun 2005 Pasal 20 Landasan RPP adalah : Perencanaan Proses Pembelajaran meliputi silabus dan rencana pelaksanaan pembelajaran (RPP) yang memuat sekurang-kurangnya tujuan pembelajaran, materi pembelajaran, metode pengajaran, sumber belajar dan penilaian hasil belajar.
Selasa, 26 April 2011
Writing paragraphs
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of connected sentences which develops one new topic, idea or theme. They are the “building blocks” of your writing, dividing it into easy-to-follow, comprehensible parts.
Essays are usually made up entirely of paragraphs; reports or other types of more technical writing will be written in sections, but within the sections there will be paragraphs as well as bullet points, lists, figures etc.
How long should a paragraph be?
As noted above, a paragraph needs to develop an idea or new aspect of an argument, and it is impossible to do this in just a sentence or two. It is usually recommended, therefore, that in typical student writing a paragraph should be a minimum of five or six sentences. It shouldn’t normally be shorter than this, but may be longer, depending on the overall length of the writing (the longer the writing, the longer the paragraphs can be: books may contain some very long paragraphs).
The most common mistake made in student writing is to make paragraphs too short. If you just write a sentence or two, two or three lines, and then start what looks like a new paragraph, it leaves a bad impression. Your writing may tend to look, and read, more like a series of notes or a list of simple points, possibly indicating that you have not thought through the ideas and have not developed them sufficiently. Alternatively, it may just mean putting some of these fragments together to make one paragraph, as long as they are linked. Don’t put unrelated ideas or information together in a paragraph. A typical 1.5 or double spaced page would normally contain just 2-3 paragraphs.
Don’t go to the opposite extreme and make your paragraphs too long. Over-long paragraphs make your writing difficult to follow and indicate that you are probably not in control of your ideas. And remember that one paragraph = one point, so if your essay just contains three or four paragraphs, this may mean just three or four ideas.
What is the structure of a paragraph?
It would be wrong to say that all paragraphs must follow a set structure; this would make your writing very mechanical, boring to read and would hinder your flexibility in answering the specific question. Instead, paragraphs need to contain some, or all, of the following components in order to sufficiently develop the point:
some sort of “topic sentence” or introduction stating what the paragraph is about. This would normally, but not always, come at the beginning of the paragraph.
explanation or definition of any terms which may be unclear.
evidence for any assertions you make: references to the sources you have used; examples, data, statistics, illustrations etc.
evaluation of this evidence or data; comparison or contrast with other information; analysis of causes and reasons; examination of effects and consequences; discussion of issues raised.
awareness of the implications of any of the above.
drawing of conclusions if appropriate
Your paragraphs should always be coherent, with the sentences linked together (see Guide 1.39). The end of the paragraph may link back to the introduction to show how the argument has developed, and may also link forward to the following paragraph. And particularly in shorter pieces, you may want to make regular reference to the specific question you are answering.
How to separate paragraphs
You must make it clear when one paragraph ends and a new one begins. Traditionally, you would “indent” the first line of the new paragraph, start it a few spaces in. Nowadays, most people leave a line space between paragraphs, without indenting the first line: this is probably the easiest thing to do. Remember that if you are double spacing your writing already, you’ll need to put in an extra space. Don’t mix the two possibilities.
Sample paragraphs
A
Irrigation schemes are a vital source of food production in most developing countries. Currently it is estimated that between 35% of world food is produced by irrigation (Bos 1992) and in parts of South East Asia where rice is the staple crop, up to 60% of food is irrigated (Yudelman 1994). While it is acknowledged that the role of small scale irrigation in development and rural food security is important, the medium and large scale sector should not be ignored for important reasons of urban and national food security (Elahi 1992). FAO have estimated that the annual global growth rate for gross agricultural production should be 3.8% most of which will have to come from new or rehabilitated irrigation schemes (Bos 1992).
(If a little bland, this has an introductory sentence that gives the theme of the paragraph followed by sentences that keep to the theme but enlarge on it, whilst debating the pro's and con's of small and large scale irrigation).
Source: http://www.uea.ac.uk/menu/acad_depts/dev/keyskills/cognitive/paragraphs.htm
B
From P. Harvey, Health Psychology, Longman, London 1988
(1) While many cancers are both treatable and curable, the nature of the treatment process may have important pyschosocial dimensions. (2) Many treatments are distressing and uncomfortable (e.g. radiotherapy and chemotherapy) or painful (e.g. surgery) or may be disfiguring (e.g. mastectomy, when the breast is removed).(3) Such procedures are carried out on patients and not simply on bodies. (4) The reactions to such treatments may influence both their efficacy and the cooperation of the patient. (5) Furthermore, the care staff will have to deal with patients who are anxious or distressed and to participate in treatments which they themselves find distressing, despite the clinical benefits which may accrue to the patient.
[The topic sentence is sentence (1). The other sentences develop the topic by giving examples (2) and by setting out some of the implications of the topic (3) (4) (5).]
C
From S.Hall et.al. The Study of Culture (Unit 6) Open University Press, Milton Keynes 1977.
(1) Ideology is yet another of those concepts developed and discussed within the social sciences which defy simple definitions. (2) Rather than being a simple conceptual tool in the hands of the sociologist or the political scientist, ideology rather provides a focal point for a series of intellectual tensions and arguments. (3) In public discussions, for example, the term 'ideology' is used in a fairly loose and unsystematic way. (4) When Keith Joseph calls another politician's speeches 'ideological', the implication would be that the politician was wrong, that he presented an inaccurate view of reality. (5) This pejorative use of the term 'ideology' to mean a distorted view of reality is used by people at both ends of the political spectrum to discredit the opposing view.
[This one is a bit more complicated. You could say that sentence (1) is the topic sentence, or that sentence (2) is. Both these sentences say roughly the same thing. Then sentences (3) and (4) give examples, and sentence (5) sums up. The whole paragraph develops the topic by setting out some of the complications in it.]
D
From P. Ashworth, 'Interpersonal Skill Issues Arising from Intensive Care Nursing Contexts', in C. Kagan (ed) Interpersonal Skills in Nursing, Croom Helm, Beckenham 1985.
(1) It is evident that full and effective use of all communication channels requires the physical, emotional and intellectual capacity to send signals which convey their intended meaning and to receive them, and also some common understanding with those with whom it is sought to communicate. (2) But this is precisely what most patients in intensive care units often do not have. (3) All are restricted in their ability to express themselves by body movement and personal appearance. (4) They are usually unfamiliar with being in a situation where they are physically dependent on other people; where bodily functions usually performed independently in private require assistance and/or permission, and are matters for relatively public discussion; and where they may not understand the physical objects, activities and sounds (including much of the verbal interchange) around them. (5) They need information about their own condition, and the environment and expectations; yet in order to conform to the traditional expectations of the 'good patient' (seen as passive and undemanding), and because they do not feel confident of knowing the right words to use, they are often unwilling or unable to pressure staff to provide it. (6) The patients' self-esteem may be diminished by illness and dependency, thus making them unwilling or unable to persist in their efforts to gain the information they need.
[This is another example of a first sentence which isn't the topic sentence. Most of this paragraph develops a topic of the difficulties faced by patients in intensive care: sentences (3), (4), (5) and (6) all do this. So these sentences are actually developing the topic which is stated in sentence (2), not sentence (1). What then is the function of sentence (1)? It isn't the topic sentence. Instead, it is the link back to what has gone before. The paragraph immediately before this one discusses different kinds of communication, both verbal and non-verbal, and shows how important they are. So sentence (1) links to that, before starting the particular topic of the difficulties which affect patients in intensive care. This is a very common structure for paragraphs - a first sentence which sums up a situation, followed by a sentence which starts a more specific topic within that situation.]
A paragraph is a group of connected sentences which develops one new topic, idea or theme. They are the “building blocks” of your writing, dividing it into easy-to-follow, comprehensible parts.
Essays are usually made up entirely of paragraphs; reports or other types of more technical writing will be written in sections, but within the sections there will be paragraphs as well as bullet points, lists, figures etc.
How long should a paragraph be?
As noted above, a paragraph needs to develop an idea or new aspect of an argument, and it is impossible to do this in just a sentence or two. It is usually recommended, therefore, that in typical student writing a paragraph should be a minimum of five or six sentences. It shouldn’t normally be shorter than this, but may be longer, depending on the overall length of the writing (the longer the writing, the longer the paragraphs can be: books may contain some very long paragraphs).
The most common mistake made in student writing is to make paragraphs too short. If you just write a sentence or two, two or three lines, and then start what looks like a new paragraph, it leaves a bad impression. Your writing may tend to look, and read, more like a series of notes or a list of simple points, possibly indicating that you have not thought through the ideas and have not developed them sufficiently. Alternatively, it may just mean putting some of these fragments together to make one paragraph, as long as they are linked. Don’t put unrelated ideas or information together in a paragraph. A typical 1.5 or double spaced page would normally contain just 2-3 paragraphs.
Don’t go to the opposite extreme and make your paragraphs too long. Over-long paragraphs make your writing difficult to follow and indicate that you are probably not in control of your ideas. And remember that one paragraph = one point, so if your essay just contains three or four paragraphs, this may mean just three or four ideas.
What is the structure of a paragraph?
It would be wrong to say that all paragraphs must follow a set structure; this would make your writing very mechanical, boring to read and would hinder your flexibility in answering the specific question. Instead, paragraphs need to contain some, or all, of the following components in order to sufficiently develop the point:
some sort of “topic sentence” or introduction stating what the paragraph is about. This would normally, but not always, come at the beginning of the paragraph.
explanation or definition of any terms which may be unclear.
evidence for any assertions you make: references to the sources you have used; examples, data, statistics, illustrations etc.
evaluation of this evidence or data; comparison or contrast with other information; analysis of causes and reasons; examination of effects and consequences; discussion of issues raised.
awareness of the implications of any of the above.
drawing of conclusions if appropriate
Your paragraphs should always be coherent, with the sentences linked together (see Guide 1.39). The end of the paragraph may link back to the introduction to show how the argument has developed, and may also link forward to the following paragraph. And particularly in shorter pieces, you may want to make regular reference to the specific question you are answering.
How to separate paragraphs
You must make it clear when one paragraph ends and a new one begins. Traditionally, you would “indent” the first line of the new paragraph, start it a few spaces in. Nowadays, most people leave a line space between paragraphs, without indenting the first line: this is probably the easiest thing to do. Remember that if you are double spacing your writing already, you’ll need to put in an extra space. Don’t mix the two possibilities.
Sample paragraphs
A
Irrigation schemes are a vital source of food production in most developing countries. Currently it is estimated that between 35% of world food is produced by irrigation (Bos 1992) and in parts of South East Asia where rice is the staple crop, up to 60% of food is irrigated (Yudelman 1994). While it is acknowledged that the role of small scale irrigation in development and rural food security is important, the medium and large scale sector should not be ignored for important reasons of urban and national food security (Elahi 1992). FAO have estimated that the annual global growth rate for gross agricultural production should be 3.8% most of which will have to come from new or rehabilitated irrigation schemes (Bos 1992).
(If a little bland, this has an introductory sentence that gives the theme of the paragraph followed by sentences that keep to the theme but enlarge on it, whilst debating the pro's and con's of small and large scale irrigation).
Source: http://www.uea.ac.uk/menu/acad_depts/dev/keyskills/cognitive/paragraphs.htm
B
From P. Harvey, Health Psychology, Longman, London 1988
(1) While many cancers are both treatable and curable, the nature of the treatment process may have important pyschosocial dimensions. (2) Many treatments are distressing and uncomfortable (e.g. radiotherapy and chemotherapy) or painful (e.g. surgery) or may be disfiguring (e.g. mastectomy, when the breast is removed).(3) Such procedures are carried out on patients and not simply on bodies. (4) The reactions to such treatments may influence both their efficacy and the cooperation of the patient. (5) Furthermore, the care staff will have to deal with patients who are anxious or distressed and to participate in treatments which they themselves find distressing, despite the clinical benefits which may accrue to the patient.
[The topic sentence is sentence (1). The other sentences develop the topic by giving examples (2) and by setting out some of the implications of the topic (3) (4) (5).]
C
From S.Hall et.al. The Study of Culture (Unit 6) Open University Press, Milton Keynes 1977.
(1) Ideology is yet another of those concepts developed and discussed within the social sciences which defy simple definitions. (2) Rather than being a simple conceptual tool in the hands of the sociologist or the political scientist, ideology rather provides a focal point for a series of intellectual tensions and arguments. (3) In public discussions, for example, the term 'ideology' is used in a fairly loose and unsystematic way. (4) When Keith Joseph calls another politician's speeches 'ideological', the implication would be that the politician was wrong, that he presented an inaccurate view of reality. (5) This pejorative use of the term 'ideology' to mean a distorted view of reality is used by people at both ends of the political spectrum to discredit the opposing view.
[This one is a bit more complicated. You could say that sentence (1) is the topic sentence, or that sentence (2) is. Both these sentences say roughly the same thing. Then sentences (3) and (4) give examples, and sentence (5) sums up. The whole paragraph develops the topic by setting out some of the complications in it.]
D
From P. Ashworth, 'Interpersonal Skill Issues Arising from Intensive Care Nursing Contexts', in C. Kagan (ed) Interpersonal Skills in Nursing, Croom Helm, Beckenham 1985.
(1) It is evident that full and effective use of all communication channels requires the physical, emotional and intellectual capacity to send signals which convey their intended meaning and to receive them, and also some common understanding with those with whom it is sought to communicate. (2) But this is precisely what most patients in intensive care units often do not have. (3) All are restricted in their ability to express themselves by body movement and personal appearance. (4) They are usually unfamiliar with being in a situation where they are physically dependent on other people; where bodily functions usually performed independently in private require assistance and/or permission, and are matters for relatively public discussion; and where they may not understand the physical objects, activities and sounds (including much of the verbal interchange) around them. (5) They need information about their own condition, and the environment and expectations; yet in order to conform to the traditional expectations of the 'good patient' (seen as passive and undemanding), and because they do not feel confident of knowing the right words to use, they are often unwilling or unable to pressure staff to provide it. (6) The patients' self-esteem may be diminished by illness and dependency, thus making them unwilling or unable to persist in their efforts to gain the information they need.
[This is another example of a first sentence which isn't the topic sentence. Most of this paragraph develops a topic of the difficulties faced by patients in intensive care: sentences (3), (4), (5) and (6) all do this. So these sentences are actually developing the topic which is stated in sentence (2), not sentence (1). What then is the function of sentence (1)? It isn't the topic sentence. Instead, it is the link back to what has gone before. The paragraph immediately before this one discusses different kinds of communication, both verbal and non-verbal, and shows how important they are. So sentence (1) links to that, before starting the particular topic of the difficulties which affect patients in intensive care. This is a very common structure for paragraphs - a first sentence which sums up a situation, followed by a sentence which starts a more specific topic within that situation.]
Writing introductions
Your introduction is the first impression your readers will have of your writing. A good introduction will show them that you know what you're talking about and that you're going to complete the task in question. It will also make them want to carry on reading and feel well disposed to what is to come. A bad introduction will have the opposite effect and might even prejudice the reader against the rest of the writing, even if it does improve.
The most common mistakes made by students are:
not to include an introduction at all
to include an introduction, but one which is unrecognizable as such
to include too much background/historical information in the introduction
to make the introduction too long
A good introduction will:
show that you are going to answer the question or complete the task
show that you understand the issues and their implications
show how you are going to do this by indicating the structure of your answer and making clear the main areas that you are going to write about (your plan).
show evidence that you have carried out some research by making a reference to one of your sources
be totally relevant
be concise: 8-9% of the total number of words is usually recommended (eg 120 words in a 1500 word assignment).
You want your tutors to say to themselves "Good! This student has understood the question, has done some research and is going to answer the question set, not another one. Let's read on!"
So more specifically, how do you do this?
include a "topic sentence" which indicates the main thrust of your answer. For example:
This essay deals with the economic and political decline in Britain's world role.
This assignment will examine Britain's peculiar unwritten constitution.
Four major features of the influence of human behaviour on planning are considered in this report.
This report will analyse the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different operating systems.
This essay will first describe the recent changes in the tax system and will then go on to argue that these changes are unfair and impracticable.
use the same, or very similar, wording as in the question. If part of the question is "Discuss recent developments in communication technology" then in your introduction say something like "This essay will consider recent developments in the field of communication technology and will ... ". Don't leave any room for doubt.
use words and expressions which clearly show the plan behind your writing, for example:
The essay is divided into four main sections.
It will first consider ...
It will then go on to describe ...
The third part compares ...
Finally, some conclusions will be drawn as to ...
The importance of introductions (and conclusions) cannot be stressed too much.
Here are some examples of good (and bad!) introductions.
Example introductions
Imagine you are studying the mass media as part of your course and you have been set the following essay title:
Examine the sociological evidence of stereotypes of social groups in the mass media. What are the causes of stereotyping in the mass media and to what extent do they influence social attitudes?
Word limit: 2000 words
Read the following examples and decide which meet the criteria for a good introduction.
Example 1
As we all know, Britain is a multicultural society. In the 1960s many thousands of immigrants came to the country, mostly setting up home in the major cities. The majority of these immigrants came from the West Indies, India and Pakistan and Hong Kong. Racism has always been a problem, with the various groups of immigrants seen as stereotypes, although over the years there has been increasing integration into British society, particularly by the children of immigrant families. This is reflected in the mass media. Twenty years ago black people were rarely seen on television and very few held jobs in the press. However, nowadays, more and more black people work as journalists and are thus able to look at events from a different perspective.
Your comments: _______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Example 2
Stereotypes are everywhere: the reserved British, the disorganised Italians, the shopping-obsessed Japanese. This essay will talk about these stereotypes and ask if they are true. It is going to look at the different types of stereotypes and their representation in the media. The following areas will be covered: television; radio; the press, and the cinema. I will particularly look at television and ask the question "Does television reinforce these stereotypes?"
Your comments: _______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Example 3
Stereotypes abound in today's society. People seem to have an innate compulsion to categorise others into various groups and then to apply rigid and limited descriptions to these groups. There are therefore, amongst others, stereotypical nationalities and races; stereotypical sexes and sexual orientations and stereotypical classes. And one place where these stereotypes often thrive is in the mass media, particularly in the tabloid press and popular television, such as in situation comedy. Some, for example Hick (1996), claim that this is a harmless phenomenon, whereas commentators such as Ealham (1998) point to the possible dangers of obsessive stereotyping in the media. This essay will examine what sociological evidence there is for the process of stereotyping in the mass media, and will then go on to analyse the reasons for its occurrence. The final part of the essay will ask how far society's attitudes are in fact shaped by this portrayal of the various kinds of stereotypes.
Your comments: _______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction 1
Your tutor would read an introduction like this with a great sense of foreboding. There's no real problem with the actual English, but the writer shows no indication whatsoever of answering the question. The word 'stereotype' has been picked up on, and narrowly interpreted as meaning racial stereotype. But even then there is no attempt to focus on the actual question, and most of what is said is irrelevant. Probably a fail.
Introduction 2
Too short for a start, and not very well written (inconsistency of tenses: will/going to) No attempt to put the question into some sort of context, to get the reader interested in what's to come. At first, it looks as if stereotypes are being interpreted simply as national stereotypes and also the writer goes off on the wrong tack: the question does not ask for a simple description nor asks about the validity of these stereotypes. The last part of the introduction, however, does indicate that the last part of the question will be addressed. If the writer manages to focus more on the actual question, the essay might just scrape a pass.
Introduction 3
This is a very good introduction. It's about the right length (c8%); gives a little relevant background and context, indicating that the writer has thought about what a stereotype is in its broadest interpretation; makes some initial references to sources; and finally focuses precisely on the question, showing the reader that it has been fully understood and that it will be answered. Note that the wording of the final part of the introduction is very close to that of the question. If the essay follows in the same vein, it should get an excellent mark.
The most common mistakes made by students are:
not to include an introduction at all
to include an introduction, but one which is unrecognizable as such
to include too much background/historical information in the introduction
to make the introduction too long
A good introduction will:
show that you are going to answer the question or complete the task
show that you understand the issues and their implications
show how you are going to do this by indicating the structure of your answer and making clear the main areas that you are going to write about (your plan).
show evidence that you have carried out some research by making a reference to one of your sources
be totally relevant
be concise: 8-9% of the total number of words is usually recommended (eg 120 words in a 1500 word assignment).
You want your tutors to say to themselves "Good! This student has understood the question, has done some research and is going to answer the question set, not another one. Let's read on!"
So more specifically, how do you do this?
include a "topic sentence" which indicates the main thrust of your answer. For example:
This essay deals with the economic and political decline in Britain's world role.
This assignment will examine Britain's peculiar unwritten constitution.
Four major features of the influence of human behaviour on planning are considered in this report.
This report will analyse the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different operating systems.
This essay will first describe the recent changes in the tax system and will then go on to argue that these changes are unfair and impracticable.
use the same, or very similar, wording as in the question. If part of the question is "Discuss recent developments in communication technology" then in your introduction say something like "This essay will consider recent developments in the field of communication technology and will ... ". Don't leave any room for doubt.
use words and expressions which clearly show the plan behind your writing, for example:
The essay is divided into four main sections.
It will first consider ...
It will then go on to describe ...
The third part compares ...
Finally, some conclusions will be drawn as to ...
The importance of introductions (and conclusions) cannot be stressed too much.
Here are some examples of good (and bad!) introductions.
Example introductions
Imagine you are studying the mass media as part of your course and you have been set the following essay title:
Examine the sociological evidence of stereotypes of social groups in the mass media. What are the causes of stereotyping in the mass media and to what extent do they influence social attitudes?
Word limit: 2000 words
Read the following examples and decide which meet the criteria for a good introduction.
Example 1
As we all know, Britain is a multicultural society. In the 1960s many thousands of immigrants came to the country, mostly setting up home in the major cities. The majority of these immigrants came from the West Indies, India and Pakistan and Hong Kong. Racism has always been a problem, with the various groups of immigrants seen as stereotypes, although over the years there has been increasing integration into British society, particularly by the children of immigrant families. This is reflected in the mass media. Twenty years ago black people were rarely seen on television and very few held jobs in the press. However, nowadays, more and more black people work as journalists and are thus able to look at events from a different perspective.
Your comments: _______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Example 2
Stereotypes are everywhere: the reserved British, the disorganised Italians, the shopping-obsessed Japanese. This essay will talk about these stereotypes and ask if they are true. It is going to look at the different types of stereotypes and their representation in the media. The following areas will be covered: television; radio; the press, and the cinema. I will particularly look at television and ask the question "Does television reinforce these stereotypes?"
Your comments: _______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Example 3
Stereotypes abound in today's society. People seem to have an innate compulsion to categorise others into various groups and then to apply rigid and limited descriptions to these groups. There are therefore, amongst others, stereotypical nationalities and races; stereotypical sexes and sexual orientations and stereotypical classes. And one place where these stereotypes often thrive is in the mass media, particularly in the tabloid press and popular television, such as in situation comedy. Some, for example Hick (1996), claim that this is a harmless phenomenon, whereas commentators such as Ealham (1998) point to the possible dangers of obsessive stereotyping in the media. This essay will examine what sociological evidence there is for the process of stereotyping in the mass media, and will then go on to analyse the reasons for its occurrence. The final part of the essay will ask how far society's attitudes are in fact shaped by this portrayal of the various kinds of stereotypes.
Your comments: _______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction 1
Your tutor would read an introduction like this with a great sense of foreboding. There's no real problem with the actual English, but the writer shows no indication whatsoever of answering the question. The word 'stereotype' has been picked up on, and narrowly interpreted as meaning racial stereotype. But even then there is no attempt to focus on the actual question, and most of what is said is irrelevant. Probably a fail.
Introduction 2
Too short for a start, and not very well written (inconsistency of tenses: will/going to) No attempt to put the question into some sort of context, to get the reader interested in what's to come. At first, it looks as if stereotypes are being interpreted simply as national stereotypes and also the writer goes off on the wrong tack: the question does not ask for a simple description nor asks about the validity of these stereotypes. The last part of the introduction, however, does indicate that the last part of the question will be addressed. If the writer manages to focus more on the actual question, the essay might just scrape a pass.
Introduction 3
This is a very good introduction. It's about the right length (c8%); gives a little relevant background and context, indicating that the writer has thought about what a stereotype is in its broadest interpretation; makes some initial references to sources; and finally focuses precisely on the question, showing the reader that it has been fully understood and that it will be answered. Note that the wording of the final part of the introduction is very close to that of the question. If the essay follows in the same vein, it should get an excellent mark.
Starting to write the dissertation
Supervisors have different ways of working and you will, to some degree, need to negotiate your approach to supervision style. For example, your supervisor may advise you to write a short proposal or abstract, say of about 300 words, in which you set out as clearly as possible what you intend to do in the dissertation. The value of this exercise is that it requires you to focus and articulate your thinking. It may be that you will be able to summarise the exact nature and scope of your study, in which case the proposal can serve as guide to refer to as you write the main chapters of the work. Alternatively, it may make you aware of gaps in your knowledge and understanding, and show you the areas that need further thought and research.
It is useful, therefore, to write the proposal and to retain it for reference and revision. It helps to attempt such an abstract even if your supervisor has not suggested that you write one. However, practice varies, and your supervisor will advise you on how to proceed. As you continue to write the main chapters of the work, you may find that your initial plan has changed. This means that when you have completed the chapters that form the main body of your dissertation you can return to the proposal and revise it as much as you need, to form the introduction.
It is highly advisable to draft a plan of the dissertation. There is a lot in common between different dissertations regarding the structure and although you do not need to stick slavishly to a standard plan, such a plan is very helpful as a template to impose some order on what may seem an unmanageable task. Here is an indicative structure that might help you with your initial plan.
Dissertation Structure
Section Section Information
Introduction The field of study, the research question, the hypothesis (if any) or, more generally, the research question that is to be investigated. It should also include a summary of the contents and main arguments in the dissertation.
The Literature Review Usually, this comes immediately after the introductory chapter. This may be more than one chapter, but should certainly be written in sections. This should include previous work done on the field of study and anything that you consider to be relevant to the hypothesis or research question and to its investigation. It will include a large number of references to the literature in your chosen area.
Methodology This section should include an account of the research questions and/or hypotheses to be investigated, relevant methods of investigation and an argument for why you think these methods are the most appropriate ones for the question and for your circumstances. You should consider the benefits of your chosen method as well as identifying any disadvantages and how you overcame them. Ethical issues and the ways in which you dealt with them should be noted. This section should also discuss any variations from the original fieldwork plan, and should conclude with a reflection on the experience of doing fieldwork.
Findings This section should present the main findings of your research together with an account of the strengths and weaknesses of your data relative to your research question/hypothesis. You may also wish to include an evaluation of any difficulties you encountered in collecting and analysing data, together with an assessment of how this affected your plan of research.
Evaluation Here you can provide an assessment of whether and how well you were able to answer your research question and/or confirm/reject your hypotheses.
Discussion This chapter must relate the findings to the theoretical/policy discussion in your literature review. You should NOT introduce any new literature at this stage.
Conclusions and recommendations An overall assessment of what you found out, how successful you were and suggestions for future research.
Beginning work on the main body of the dissertation
Once you have produced the proposal and discussed it with your supervisor, you may want to write the first draft of a chapter of the dissertation. When you hand in this draft, you should arrange a tutorial to receive your supervisor's verbal or written comments and suggestions on how it may be improved. You may, for example, produce a draft introduction setting out the issue, together with a literature review which covers what, if any, treatment of the topic has gone beforehand. You may also wish to draft those sections of the methodology chapter that cover the methods that you wish to use, together with a justification for why you think those methods are best.
Revising sections after receiving the supervisor's comments
When you have received your supervisor's comments on the draft of any chapter, you should revise that particular chapter immediately. Prompt revision is easier than letting things drift, and you should do it while the advice of your supervisor is fresh in your mind. This will also avoid building up a backlog of work that needs to be revised, which can be discouraging. Having the material on a computer disk will enable you to do revisions efficiently and with a minimum of fuss. Be sure to back up all your work on a floppy disk, CD, or memory stick.
Organising your time
Depending on the credit rating of the dissertation, the amount of time you devote to it should be equivalent to the time you would devote to a taught course with the same credit rating; that is, seminar and lecture time plus time for private study.
Findings from our Research
In our research we found that students often did not think about the credit rating of their dissertation and actually spent more time working on it than they should have! They saw it as such an important part of their degree that they wanted to put more into it:
It [the dissertation] took up more of my time ... Once you get into it, you have to out in the effort. It’s 8000 words, plus there’s so much to do. When you’re doing it, it seems so much more that the rest of your work (Todd, Bannister and Clegg, 2004, p341).
However, this can have a detrimental effect on your other modules - one student said ‘I did the dissertation and left the other work’ - don’t make his mistake. All the modules in the final year are important.
You will find that once the final year begins, the weeks go by very quickly, and you will need to organise your time well from the start so that the ongoing preparation of your dissertation continues alongside work for the taught units you are studying. Once you have a workable plan it is much easier to plan the work in sequence and to set yourself targets for the completion of the separate parts (see the section on Getting Started with the Dissertation). Allow plenty of time for final revisions after your tutor has seen a complete draft.
SUGGESTION
If you are taking a dissertation over two semesters, you should aim to spend the equivalent of one full half-day per week working on your dissertation during each semester of your final year if it is worth 20 credits - nearer twice that amount of time if it is a 40-credit dissertation.
Click on the icon to read a case study relevant to this section.
Deadlines for producing drafts
You will decide with your supervisor precisely when to produce drafts, but if you are taking a dissertation module over one academic year then by the end of the first semester you would normally expect to produce a proposal or abstract and a first draft of one or two chapters. You would then produce the drafts of the remaining chapters and complete the process of revision and writing-up during the second semester.
In the second semester, when drafting the remaining main chapters of the dissertation, you will follow the practice established in the first semester of submitting the drafts to your supervisor for comments and advice. You should take advantage of the period between the first semester and the start of the second semester to write a draft of a chapter, and you should plan to have produced first drafts of all the main chapters by at least four weeks before the submission date (also allowing for any vacation periods when staff may not be available).
If, however, you are taking the dissertation module over one semester, you will need to adjust this time frame accordingly.
Writing the introduction
The introduction to your dissertation should explain to the reader what you are going to investigate. It should describe the dissertation's topic and scope. You should explain your reasons for investigating your chosen topic by referring to the appropriate literature. Having completed the work on the main substance of your dissertation, you should have a much clearer idea of its nature and scope than you did when you wrote your preliminary abstract or proposal. The introduction to your dissertation should explain to the reader what you are going to investigate. It should describe the dissertation's topic and scope. You should explain your reasons for investigating your chosen topic by referring to the appropriate literature.
It is important, however, to write the introduction as though you are setting out on a process of investigation. You need to emphasise the exploratory nature of your work. You should also avoid anticipating the discoveries and conclusions that you have made in the course of your investigations. So, you might simply say that you have identified certain common features in the relevant literature, or a particular issue that it deals with, and that your dissertation will examine the literature closely in order to demonstrate the relationships between treatments of the issue in the sample texts. When you have completed the main body of the work and your tutor has commented on your complete draft, you may well wish to revisit the introduction to take into account your findings and your tutor's comments on their significance.
Writing a literature review
Your dissertation is a substantial piece of written work that ideally should conform to a number of academic conventions. One of the most important of these academic conventions is the literature review. In short, the literature review is a discussion or 'review' of secondary literature that is of general and central relevance to the particular area under investigation.
Often students ask how long a literature review should be. This is a difficult question given that the total length of your dissertation might be anything from five to twelve thousand words. Obviously your supervisor may be able to give some indication of the approximate length of your literature review. However, don't become pre-occupied with word length, the main thing is that your literature review should capture the general and specific aspects of the literature of your subject.
Why is a literature review necessary?
The literature review is an important device in your dissertation as it performs a number of related functions:
1. It demonstrates to whoever reads the dissertation that the author of the work has read widely and is aware of the range of debates that have taken place within the given field. It provides the proof that you have more than a good grasp of the breadth and depth of the topic of the dissertation - your dissertation gives you the opportunity to show off how clever you are! The literature review is a great place to start, because it should demonstrate that you know what you are talking about because you have read everything that is relevant to your dissertation.
2. It can provide the rationale for the research question in the study. This can be done by highlighting specific gaps in the literature – questions that have not been answered (or even asked), and areas of research that have not been conducted within your chosen field. In this way the literature review can provide a justification of your own research.
3. It can allow you to build on work that has already been conducted. For example you might adopt a similar methodological or theoretical approach in your work to one that exists within the literature, yet place your actual emphasis elsewhere. In this way you are building on work that has already been conducted by adopting similar strategies and concepts, yet focusing the question on something that interests you.
4. It helps to define the broad context of your study, placing your work within a well defined academic tradition. Poor dissertations often fail to relate to broader debates within the academic community. They may have a well defined research question, yet without placing this question in the appropriate context, it can lose its significance. The literature review therefore can add weight to your question by framing it within broader debates within the academic community.
How do I 'do' a literature review?
Writing a literature review is not as simple as at first it may seem. What follows is a step by step guide on how to go about conducting and presenting your literature review.
1. Generate a list of references
The first stage of your literature review is to collect a list of literature that is relevant to your study. You have already seen in the section Help with Finding Literature and Research how you can get a list of useful references.
2. Make sense of your reading
Once you have a list of references for your dissertation, you now have to access and read this material. This process is going to be time consuming because you will be reading a large amount of material. Furthermore once you start your reading you might find that some of the literature is of little relevance to your study. Don't panic, this is something that many researchers and dissertation students go through and is often a necessary part of the process. It is better to read something that is not central to your dissertation than miss something that might be an important and relevant contribution to the field.
While reading, make notes about the central themes and arguments of the book, chapter or article. These notes can then be incorporated into the finished version of your literature review. Try and get a sense of the theoretical perspective of the author, this will be of use when you come to organise and present your literature review. Also, emphasise the way in which the piece of literature you are reading seeks to set itself apart from other literature. Importantly, start to think critically about the piece you are reading; ask: what is this person trying to say and why? How is it different from the way others have dealt with this issue? This critical component is very important as it demonstrates that you are engaging with relevant literature in an appropriate manner and that you can discriminate between different perspectives and approaches that exist within your chosen field.
3. Organisation and presentation
Once you have generated a large number of notes around your reading you might start to feel overwhelmed by the literature. In terms of the organisation and presentation of your literature review, it is worth dividing your review into two main areas: general reading and literature that is of central importance. You will also need to further divide the literature into specific areas relevant to your study for e.g. theories and concepts; policy analysis; empirical studies and so-on. What follows are some general guidelines on how you might do this.
General texts
It will be clear that some of the reading you have done is of more relevance than others. It is important, however, that you do not discard the less relevant work; instead this can form the broad background of your discussion of the more relevant literature within your field. For example you may mention different authors that have dealt with a question related to your field but may not be central to it. Highlight these in broad terms, state how these works have impacted on your particular area. You need not go into great detail about these more general works, but by highlighting these works you are demonstrating your awareness of the scope and limits of your study and how it touches upon other areas of study.
Central texts
Once you have discussed the range of literature that is only of general interest to your study, you can then go into more detail on the literature that more sharply focuses on the questions that are of interest to you. Devote more detail to these particular works as they are more important to your topic. Indeed they may highlight the gap in the literature that exists that you seek to fill; they may provide the basis on which you seek to build, or they might be works which require some critique from your particular perspective.
Further categorisation
When you have divided your literature review into general works and works of central importance, you should also further divide the literature into sub-categories. By further dividing your literature in this way, you are adding more organisation into your literature review by providing specific sub-categories of relevant literature.
For example in the general works section of your literature review, you might want one sub-heading on the main theoretical debates, one on empirical studies and maybe one on policy. With reference to the more central literature, you could organise this more important reading in a similar way. For example, if relevant, you could have a section on competing theoretical perspectives; a section on the main findings of important empirical studies; a section on policy implementation and its impacts. See the table below.
Breakdown of Literature Review
General Literature Theoretical Approaches
Empirical Research
Central Literature
Detailed analysis of theoretical and conceptual debates
Discussion of main findings of important empirical studies and their critiques
Focused analysis of policy implementation
If appropriate you might also want to divide your sub-headings further.
One final note on the more central literature is that this more focused analysis can also serve to bring your empirical or theoretical work into sharper focus. In this sense you are prefacing your work and how it relates to other academic studies by your discussion of it in your literature review. One thing to remember however is that just because you talk about an author's work in your literature review, doesn't mean you never mention it again in your dissertation. In the discussion section of your study you will necessarily relate your findings to those central studies that you have highlighted in your literature review.
Then what?
When you have written your literature review, this is not the end of the process. Throughout your dissertation process, you will come across literature that is of relevance to your area of study, do not ignore this material, you can always add more literature to your review as you come across it.
Finally, make sure that you keep a record of all your references, even the ones that have been of little use. This will help you organise your bibliography and reference list. You may even need to go back and look over something that you looked at earlier in your studies that may have more relevance than you first thought.
Writing the Methods section
This must clearly identify the epistemological (i.e. your stance on what should pass as acceptable knowledge) basis of the study and demonstrate a good working knowledge of the methods to be employed. It should include good coverage of the process of the fieldwork and indicate how the analysis was undertaken. As well as covering the ethical issues it should also contain an element of reflection on the research process.
Writing the Findings section
Many students confuse findings with discussion and it is important to keep them separate. The findings are often presented in charts and tables (even from qualitative data). Verbatim references to participants' comments are particularly helpful. It is important to ensure that findings are truly analysed, rather than described. Finding ways of cross relating the findings is therefore important.
Writing the Discussion
Traditionally, the discussion links findings to the literature presented in the literature review.
There are arguments for extending the coverage of literature in this section but only in exceptional circumstances. The discussion should be precisely that: an opportunity to raise the different voices of interest in the research question and to explore the findings in the light of the literature and different perspectives within it.
Writing the Conclusion
The main chapters of your dissertation will have focused on particular topics or issues. For example, each chapter may have focused discussion on a particular text. Alternatively, you may have structured your work so that each chapter is devoted to discussion of a particular aspect of your overall topic. The conclusion offers the opportunity to review your work as a whole, to identify the points of comparison and contrast the various texts you have examined, and to show that, in the process of your study, you have developed a more precise, critical understanding of the way they deal with your topic. This is also an appropriate place for you to point to the limitations of small-scale research of this kind and to indicate possible avenues for researchers to address the issues in the future.
SUGGESTION
Before you submit the dissertation, you should check that the final version of the title is an accurate reflection of what the dissertation is about and, if not, change the title.
Final draft
The process of preparing your dissertation for submission begins with a careful final drafting of all your chapters and sections. Here you have the opportunity:
• To ensure that your argument is clearly developed from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph.
• To check the accuracy of your spelling and punctuation - do not rely on spellchecker software!
• To make sure that your sentences are well constructed and that you are expressing yourself clearly, precisely and fluently.
• To ensure that you have not contradicted or repeated yourself.
You need to check that your quotations from and references to both primary and secondary texts are clearly and consistently identified according to the conventions of the HARVARD referencing systems (or whatever system your department requires). There is more about this in the section on Plagiarism. You will check that your bibliography is properly presented and contains all sources cited throughout your work.
Guidelines on presentation
You should refer to the guidance provided by your own department, but in general you should think about the following:
• Your dissertation must normally be typed or word-processed on A4 paper.
• Your own text must be double-spaced.
• Indented quotations must be single-spaced.
• The pages of the dissertation must be numbered.
• It must have a title page.
• It must have a table of contents.
Submitting the completed dissertation
The completed dissertation should be submitted in the form set out by your department. If there are no formal styles, submit the dissertation in a format that makes it easy for the examiner to handle - avoid complicated spring-back or ring-backed files.
Summary
• Abstracts of sections and of the dissertation as a whole will help to focus your writing and direct your thoughts.
• Set yourself deadlines for drafting chapters. Agree these with your supervisor if you think that will motivate you.
• Depending on the rules and regulations of your own institution, give your supervisor drafts of chapters as you write them, and try to be responsive to criticism. Revise chapters as soon as you get them back.
• Read through each completed chapter. Check that your argument flows logically.
• Even if you write the introduction last, write it as if you have yet to find the answers to your questions. Don't give away the ending!
• Finally, check that the title refers accurately to the finished dissertation. If it does not - change the title!
• Follow some basic rules:
1. Type or word-process your dissertation - do not write it out.
2. Use double line spacing for your own writing.
3. Use single line spacing for indented quotations (and footnote these!)
4. Number the pages.
5. Include a title page and a table of contents.
• Remember to adhere to any format stipulated by your department.
• IMPORTANT: Check how many copies your department requires.
Key Questions
• How long is your dissertation going to be?
• Have you mapped out the content of each of your chapters?
• In what order will the content flow best?
• Is your evaluation doing its job? Likewise, is your conclusion suitably conclusive?
• Is the order of the chapters logical and coherent, will it make sense to the reader?
• Are the beginning, middle and end clear?
• Do your sentences and paragraphs make sense?
• Do you know someone else who can proof-read the dissertation for you?
• Have you allowed enough time to proof-read properly?
Further Reading
BRYMAN, A. (2004). Social Research Methods. 2nd ed. Oxford, Oxford University Press, chapter 26 - Doing a research project
DENSCOMBE, M. (2003). The Good Research Guide for Small-scale Social Research Projects. Maidenhead, Oxford University Press, part III
HART, C. (2000). Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Imagination. London, Sage
Web Resources
Writing up your dissertation:
http://www.learnerassociates.net/dissthes/
More on writing up your dissertation:
http://www.kent.ac.uk/uelt/learning/online/dissertation.html
Conducting a literature review:
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/litrev.html
It is useful, therefore, to write the proposal and to retain it for reference and revision. It helps to attempt such an abstract even if your supervisor has not suggested that you write one. However, practice varies, and your supervisor will advise you on how to proceed. As you continue to write the main chapters of the work, you may find that your initial plan has changed. This means that when you have completed the chapters that form the main body of your dissertation you can return to the proposal and revise it as much as you need, to form the introduction.
It is highly advisable to draft a plan of the dissertation. There is a lot in common between different dissertations regarding the structure and although you do not need to stick slavishly to a standard plan, such a plan is very helpful as a template to impose some order on what may seem an unmanageable task. Here is an indicative structure that might help you with your initial plan.
Dissertation Structure
Section Section Information
Introduction The field of study, the research question, the hypothesis (if any) or, more generally, the research question that is to be investigated. It should also include a summary of the contents and main arguments in the dissertation.
The Literature Review Usually, this comes immediately after the introductory chapter. This may be more than one chapter, but should certainly be written in sections. This should include previous work done on the field of study and anything that you consider to be relevant to the hypothesis or research question and to its investigation. It will include a large number of references to the literature in your chosen area.
Methodology This section should include an account of the research questions and/or hypotheses to be investigated, relevant methods of investigation and an argument for why you think these methods are the most appropriate ones for the question and for your circumstances. You should consider the benefits of your chosen method as well as identifying any disadvantages and how you overcame them. Ethical issues and the ways in which you dealt with them should be noted. This section should also discuss any variations from the original fieldwork plan, and should conclude with a reflection on the experience of doing fieldwork.
Findings This section should present the main findings of your research together with an account of the strengths and weaknesses of your data relative to your research question/hypothesis. You may also wish to include an evaluation of any difficulties you encountered in collecting and analysing data, together with an assessment of how this affected your plan of research.
Evaluation Here you can provide an assessment of whether and how well you were able to answer your research question and/or confirm/reject your hypotheses.
Discussion This chapter must relate the findings to the theoretical/policy discussion in your literature review. You should NOT introduce any new literature at this stage.
Conclusions and recommendations An overall assessment of what you found out, how successful you were and suggestions for future research.
Beginning work on the main body of the dissertation
Once you have produced the proposal and discussed it with your supervisor, you may want to write the first draft of a chapter of the dissertation. When you hand in this draft, you should arrange a tutorial to receive your supervisor's verbal or written comments and suggestions on how it may be improved. You may, for example, produce a draft introduction setting out the issue, together with a literature review which covers what, if any, treatment of the topic has gone beforehand. You may also wish to draft those sections of the methodology chapter that cover the methods that you wish to use, together with a justification for why you think those methods are best.
Revising sections after receiving the supervisor's comments
When you have received your supervisor's comments on the draft of any chapter, you should revise that particular chapter immediately. Prompt revision is easier than letting things drift, and you should do it while the advice of your supervisor is fresh in your mind. This will also avoid building up a backlog of work that needs to be revised, which can be discouraging. Having the material on a computer disk will enable you to do revisions efficiently and with a minimum of fuss. Be sure to back up all your work on a floppy disk, CD, or memory stick.
Organising your time
Depending on the credit rating of the dissertation, the amount of time you devote to it should be equivalent to the time you would devote to a taught course with the same credit rating; that is, seminar and lecture time plus time for private study.
Findings from our Research
In our research we found that students often did not think about the credit rating of their dissertation and actually spent more time working on it than they should have! They saw it as such an important part of their degree that they wanted to put more into it:
It [the dissertation] took up more of my time ... Once you get into it, you have to out in the effort. It’s 8000 words, plus there’s so much to do. When you’re doing it, it seems so much more that the rest of your work (Todd, Bannister and Clegg, 2004, p341).
However, this can have a detrimental effect on your other modules - one student said ‘I did the dissertation and left the other work’ - don’t make his mistake. All the modules in the final year are important.
You will find that once the final year begins, the weeks go by very quickly, and you will need to organise your time well from the start so that the ongoing preparation of your dissertation continues alongside work for the taught units you are studying. Once you have a workable plan it is much easier to plan the work in sequence and to set yourself targets for the completion of the separate parts (see the section on Getting Started with the Dissertation). Allow plenty of time for final revisions after your tutor has seen a complete draft.
SUGGESTION
If you are taking a dissertation over two semesters, you should aim to spend the equivalent of one full half-day per week working on your dissertation during each semester of your final year if it is worth 20 credits - nearer twice that amount of time if it is a 40-credit dissertation.
Click on the icon to read a case study relevant to this section.
Deadlines for producing drafts
You will decide with your supervisor precisely when to produce drafts, but if you are taking a dissertation module over one academic year then by the end of the first semester you would normally expect to produce a proposal or abstract and a first draft of one or two chapters. You would then produce the drafts of the remaining chapters and complete the process of revision and writing-up during the second semester.
In the second semester, when drafting the remaining main chapters of the dissertation, you will follow the practice established in the first semester of submitting the drafts to your supervisor for comments and advice. You should take advantage of the period between the first semester and the start of the second semester to write a draft of a chapter, and you should plan to have produced first drafts of all the main chapters by at least four weeks before the submission date (also allowing for any vacation periods when staff may not be available).
If, however, you are taking the dissertation module over one semester, you will need to adjust this time frame accordingly.
Writing the introduction
The introduction to your dissertation should explain to the reader what you are going to investigate. It should describe the dissertation's topic and scope. You should explain your reasons for investigating your chosen topic by referring to the appropriate literature. Having completed the work on the main substance of your dissertation, you should have a much clearer idea of its nature and scope than you did when you wrote your preliminary abstract or proposal. The introduction to your dissertation should explain to the reader what you are going to investigate. It should describe the dissertation's topic and scope. You should explain your reasons for investigating your chosen topic by referring to the appropriate literature.
It is important, however, to write the introduction as though you are setting out on a process of investigation. You need to emphasise the exploratory nature of your work. You should also avoid anticipating the discoveries and conclusions that you have made in the course of your investigations. So, you might simply say that you have identified certain common features in the relevant literature, or a particular issue that it deals with, and that your dissertation will examine the literature closely in order to demonstrate the relationships between treatments of the issue in the sample texts. When you have completed the main body of the work and your tutor has commented on your complete draft, you may well wish to revisit the introduction to take into account your findings and your tutor's comments on their significance.
Writing a literature review
Your dissertation is a substantial piece of written work that ideally should conform to a number of academic conventions. One of the most important of these academic conventions is the literature review. In short, the literature review is a discussion or 'review' of secondary literature that is of general and central relevance to the particular area under investigation.
Often students ask how long a literature review should be. This is a difficult question given that the total length of your dissertation might be anything from five to twelve thousand words. Obviously your supervisor may be able to give some indication of the approximate length of your literature review. However, don't become pre-occupied with word length, the main thing is that your literature review should capture the general and specific aspects of the literature of your subject.
Why is a literature review necessary?
The literature review is an important device in your dissertation as it performs a number of related functions:
1. It demonstrates to whoever reads the dissertation that the author of the work has read widely and is aware of the range of debates that have taken place within the given field. It provides the proof that you have more than a good grasp of the breadth and depth of the topic of the dissertation - your dissertation gives you the opportunity to show off how clever you are! The literature review is a great place to start, because it should demonstrate that you know what you are talking about because you have read everything that is relevant to your dissertation.
2. It can provide the rationale for the research question in the study. This can be done by highlighting specific gaps in the literature – questions that have not been answered (or even asked), and areas of research that have not been conducted within your chosen field. In this way the literature review can provide a justification of your own research.
3. It can allow you to build on work that has already been conducted. For example you might adopt a similar methodological or theoretical approach in your work to one that exists within the literature, yet place your actual emphasis elsewhere. In this way you are building on work that has already been conducted by adopting similar strategies and concepts, yet focusing the question on something that interests you.
4. It helps to define the broad context of your study, placing your work within a well defined academic tradition. Poor dissertations often fail to relate to broader debates within the academic community. They may have a well defined research question, yet without placing this question in the appropriate context, it can lose its significance. The literature review therefore can add weight to your question by framing it within broader debates within the academic community.
How do I 'do' a literature review?
Writing a literature review is not as simple as at first it may seem. What follows is a step by step guide on how to go about conducting and presenting your literature review.
1. Generate a list of references
The first stage of your literature review is to collect a list of literature that is relevant to your study. You have already seen in the section Help with Finding Literature and Research how you can get a list of useful references.
2. Make sense of your reading
Once you have a list of references for your dissertation, you now have to access and read this material. This process is going to be time consuming because you will be reading a large amount of material. Furthermore once you start your reading you might find that some of the literature is of little relevance to your study. Don't panic, this is something that many researchers and dissertation students go through and is often a necessary part of the process. It is better to read something that is not central to your dissertation than miss something that might be an important and relevant contribution to the field.
While reading, make notes about the central themes and arguments of the book, chapter or article. These notes can then be incorporated into the finished version of your literature review. Try and get a sense of the theoretical perspective of the author, this will be of use when you come to organise and present your literature review. Also, emphasise the way in which the piece of literature you are reading seeks to set itself apart from other literature. Importantly, start to think critically about the piece you are reading; ask: what is this person trying to say and why? How is it different from the way others have dealt with this issue? This critical component is very important as it demonstrates that you are engaging with relevant literature in an appropriate manner and that you can discriminate between different perspectives and approaches that exist within your chosen field.
3. Organisation and presentation
Once you have generated a large number of notes around your reading you might start to feel overwhelmed by the literature. In terms of the organisation and presentation of your literature review, it is worth dividing your review into two main areas: general reading and literature that is of central importance. You will also need to further divide the literature into specific areas relevant to your study for e.g. theories and concepts; policy analysis; empirical studies and so-on. What follows are some general guidelines on how you might do this.
General texts
It will be clear that some of the reading you have done is of more relevance than others. It is important, however, that you do not discard the less relevant work; instead this can form the broad background of your discussion of the more relevant literature within your field. For example you may mention different authors that have dealt with a question related to your field but may not be central to it. Highlight these in broad terms, state how these works have impacted on your particular area. You need not go into great detail about these more general works, but by highlighting these works you are demonstrating your awareness of the scope and limits of your study and how it touches upon other areas of study.
Central texts
Once you have discussed the range of literature that is only of general interest to your study, you can then go into more detail on the literature that more sharply focuses on the questions that are of interest to you. Devote more detail to these particular works as they are more important to your topic. Indeed they may highlight the gap in the literature that exists that you seek to fill; they may provide the basis on which you seek to build, or they might be works which require some critique from your particular perspective.
Further categorisation
When you have divided your literature review into general works and works of central importance, you should also further divide the literature into sub-categories. By further dividing your literature in this way, you are adding more organisation into your literature review by providing specific sub-categories of relevant literature.
For example in the general works section of your literature review, you might want one sub-heading on the main theoretical debates, one on empirical studies and maybe one on policy. With reference to the more central literature, you could organise this more important reading in a similar way. For example, if relevant, you could have a section on competing theoretical perspectives; a section on the main findings of important empirical studies; a section on policy implementation and its impacts. See the table below.
Breakdown of Literature Review
General Literature Theoretical Approaches
Empirical Research
Central Literature
Detailed analysis of theoretical and conceptual debates
Discussion of main findings of important empirical studies and their critiques
Focused analysis of policy implementation
If appropriate you might also want to divide your sub-headings further.
One final note on the more central literature is that this more focused analysis can also serve to bring your empirical or theoretical work into sharper focus. In this sense you are prefacing your work and how it relates to other academic studies by your discussion of it in your literature review. One thing to remember however is that just because you talk about an author's work in your literature review, doesn't mean you never mention it again in your dissertation. In the discussion section of your study you will necessarily relate your findings to those central studies that you have highlighted in your literature review.
Then what?
When you have written your literature review, this is not the end of the process. Throughout your dissertation process, you will come across literature that is of relevance to your area of study, do not ignore this material, you can always add more literature to your review as you come across it.
Finally, make sure that you keep a record of all your references, even the ones that have been of little use. This will help you organise your bibliography and reference list. You may even need to go back and look over something that you looked at earlier in your studies that may have more relevance than you first thought.
Writing the Methods section
This must clearly identify the epistemological (i.e. your stance on what should pass as acceptable knowledge) basis of the study and demonstrate a good working knowledge of the methods to be employed. It should include good coverage of the process of the fieldwork and indicate how the analysis was undertaken. As well as covering the ethical issues it should also contain an element of reflection on the research process.
Writing the Findings section
Many students confuse findings with discussion and it is important to keep them separate. The findings are often presented in charts and tables (even from qualitative data). Verbatim references to participants' comments are particularly helpful. It is important to ensure that findings are truly analysed, rather than described. Finding ways of cross relating the findings is therefore important.
Writing the Discussion
Traditionally, the discussion links findings to the literature presented in the literature review.
There are arguments for extending the coverage of literature in this section but only in exceptional circumstances. The discussion should be precisely that: an opportunity to raise the different voices of interest in the research question and to explore the findings in the light of the literature and different perspectives within it.
Writing the Conclusion
The main chapters of your dissertation will have focused on particular topics or issues. For example, each chapter may have focused discussion on a particular text. Alternatively, you may have structured your work so that each chapter is devoted to discussion of a particular aspect of your overall topic. The conclusion offers the opportunity to review your work as a whole, to identify the points of comparison and contrast the various texts you have examined, and to show that, in the process of your study, you have developed a more precise, critical understanding of the way they deal with your topic. This is also an appropriate place for you to point to the limitations of small-scale research of this kind and to indicate possible avenues for researchers to address the issues in the future.
SUGGESTION
Before you submit the dissertation, you should check that the final version of the title is an accurate reflection of what the dissertation is about and, if not, change the title.
Final draft
The process of preparing your dissertation for submission begins with a careful final drafting of all your chapters and sections. Here you have the opportunity:
• To ensure that your argument is clearly developed from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph.
• To check the accuracy of your spelling and punctuation - do not rely on spellchecker software!
• To make sure that your sentences are well constructed and that you are expressing yourself clearly, precisely and fluently.
• To ensure that you have not contradicted or repeated yourself.
You need to check that your quotations from and references to both primary and secondary texts are clearly and consistently identified according to the conventions of the HARVARD referencing systems (or whatever system your department requires). There is more about this in the section on Plagiarism. You will check that your bibliography is properly presented and contains all sources cited throughout your work.
Guidelines on presentation
You should refer to the guidance provided by your own department, but in general you should think about the following:
• Your dissertation must normally be typed or word-processed on A4 paper.
• Your own text must be double-spaced.
• Indented quotations must be single-spaced.
• The pages of the dissertation must be numbered.
• It must have a title page.
• It must have a table of contents.
Submitting the completed dissertation
The completed dissertation should be submitted in the form set out by your department. If there are no formal styles, submit the dissertation in a format that makes it easy for the examiner to handle - avoid complicated spring-back or ring-backed files.
Summary
• Abstracts of sections and of the dissertation as a whole will help to focus your writing and direct your thoughts.
• Set yourself deadlines for drafting chapters. Agree these with your supervisor if you think that will motivate you.
• Depending on the rules and regulations of your own institution, give your supervisor drafts of chapters as you write them, and try to be responsive to criticism. Revise chapters as soon as you get them back.
• Read through each completed chapter. Check that your argument flows logically.
• Even if you write the introduction last, write it as if you have yet to find the answers to your questions. Don't give away the ending!
• Finally, check that the title refers accurately to the finished dissertation. If it does not - change the title!
• Follow some basic rules:
1. Type or word-process your dissertation - do not write it out.
2. Use double line spacing for your own writing.
3. Use single line spacing for indented quotations (and footnote these!)
4. Number the pages.
5. Include a title page and a table of contents.
• Remember to adhere to any format stipulated by your department.
• IMPORTANT: Check how many copies your department requires.
Key Questions
• How long is your dissertation going to be?
• Have you mapped out the content of each of your chapters?
• In what order will the content flow best?
• Is your evaluation doing its job? Likewise, is your conclusion suitably conclusive?
• Is the order of the chapters logical and coherent, will it make sense to the reader?
• Are the beginning, middle and end clear?
• Do your sentences and paragraphs make sense?
• Do you know someone else who can proof-read the dissertation for you?
• Have you allowed enough time to proof-read properly?
Further Reading
BRYMAN, A. (2004). Social Research Methods. 2nd ed. Oxford, Oxford University Press, chapter 26 - Doing a research project
DENSCOMBE, M. (2003). The Good Research Guide for Small-scale Social Research Projects. Maidenhead, Oxford University Press, part III
HART, C. (2000). Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Imagination. London, Sage
Web Resources
Writing up your dissertation:
http://www.learnerassociates.net/dissthes/
More on writing up your dissertation:
http://www.kent.ac.uk/uelt/learning/online/dissertation.html
Conducting a literature review:
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/litrev.html
Cohesion: linking words and phrases
You can use words or short phrases which help to guide your reader through your writing, and to link sentences, paragraphs and sections both forwards and backwards. Good use will make what you have written easy to follow; bad use might mean your style is disjointed, probably with too many short sentences, and consequently difficult to follow. Your mark could be affected either way.
The best way to "get a feel" for these words is through your reading. Most textbooks and articles are well-written and will probably include a lot of these cohesive devices. Note how they are used and try to emulate what you have read. Do make sure though that you fully understand their meaning: incorrect use could change completely what you're trying to say. Try to use a variety of expressions, particularly in longer pieces of writing.
Don't forget "AND"! Two short sentences are often best connected together with this little word.
There follows a list of words and phrases that can be used. The list is not exhaustive, and BE CAREFUL: although grouped together, none is totally synonymous. Their position in the sentence can also vary; this is where your reading and dictionary come in.
Listing Giving examples Generalising
first, second, third for example in general
first, furthermore, finally for instance generally
to begin, to conclude as follows: on the whole
next that is as a rule
Reinforcement in this case for the most part
also namely in most cases
furthermore in other words usually
moreover Result/consequence Highlighting
what is more so in particular
in addition therefore particularly
besides as a result/consequence especially
above all accordingly mainly
as well (as) consequently Reformulation
in the same way because of this/that in other words
not only ... but also thus rather
Similarity hence to put it more simply
equally for this/that reason Expressing an alternative
likewise so that alternatively
similarly in that case rather
correspondingly under these circumstances on the other hand
in the same way Deduction the alternative is
Transition to new point then another possibility would be
now, in other words Contrast
as far as x is concerned in that case instead
with regard/reference to otherwise conversely
as for ... this implies that ... on the contrary
it follows that if so/not in contrast
turning to Stating the obvious in comparison
Summary obviously Concession (sth unexpected)
in conclusion clearly however
to conclude naturally even though
in brief of course however much
to summarise as can be expected nevertheless
overall surely still
therefore after all yet
Here are just a few examples of some of the words in action:
REINFORCEMENT
Desktop computers are cheaper and more reliable than laptops; furthermore, they are more flexible.
RESULT/CONSEQUENCE
Prices fell by more than 20% last year. As a result, sales increased by 15%.
GENERALISING
On the whole, his speech was well received, despite some complaints from new members.
CONTRAST
The South East of the UK often has the coldest weather in the winter. Conversely, the North West of Scotland frequently has the mildest temperatures.
CONCESSION
It was a very expensive holiday, the weather was bad and the people weren’t very friendly. Nevertheless, we would probably go back to the same place.
Top of page
Transition word exercise
Always ask yourself what the exact relationship is between the sentences or parts of sentences. Are you leading to the result of something? Are you making a deduction? Are you introducing some contradictory evidence or ideas? Your choice of word or phrase obviously depends on this. And always check in a good dictionary if you're not quite sure about a word's use or its position in a sentence. Remember that punctuation will affect what you use.
Insert the best alternative
1 Polls show that Tony Blair is the most popular Prime Minister this century. ______________ , there are even members of his own party who are uneasy with his approach.
In particular However For instance
2 There are some slight variations in temperature, but ________________ 26 to 27ºC should be expected.
consequently otherwise as a rule
3 The two main Channel Islands, ________________ Jersey and Guernsey, are much closer to France than to England.
for example namely in particular
4 It was announced that nurses' working hours would be increased by 25%. ______________ , even fewer trainee nurses are expected to join the profession.
As a result So that Likewise
5 Sales of CDs have experienced a small but steady fall over the past 12 months. _____________ , vinyl records have seen an increase in their share of the market, up to 1.7%.
Above all Correspondingly In contrast
6 The Vice Chancellor explained that in light of the current financial climate and because of unexpected bad debts, it would be necessary to peg salary levels at their current level for all grades of staff. ______________ , no-one was getting a pay rise.
Nevertheless In other words Similarly
7 It is clear, therefore, that the situation in Brazil will improve only slowly. ______________ the economic problems being experienced in Japan, the outlook is slightly more optimistic.
Furthermore In comparison With reference to
8 In order to try to reduce car use in the inner cities, the government has announced new restrictions on company parking spaces and ______________ , a new tax on individual car use.
as well as in addition in the same way
9 Essays must be handed in by the deadline, ______________ they will not be marked.
obviously otherwise as a result
10 ______________ it has been shown that fractures can occur at even relatively low pressures, the use of the material should not be completely discounted.
Nevertheless Because Even though
The best way to "get a feel" for these words is through your reading. Most textbooks and articles are well-written and will probably include a lot of these cohesive devices. Note how they are used and try to emulate what you have read. Do make sure though that you fully understand their meaning: incorrect use could change completely what you're trying to say. Try to use a variety of expressions, particularly in longer pieces of writing.
Don't forget "AND"! Two short sentences are often best connected together with this little word.
There follows a list of words and phrases that can be used. The list is not exhaustive, and BE CAREFUL: although grouped together, none is totally synonymous. Their position in the sentence can also vary; this is where your reading and dictionary come in.
Listing Giving examples Generalising
first, second, third for example in general
first, furthermore, finally for instance generally
to begin, to conclude as follows: on the whole
next that is as a rule
Reinforcement in this case for the most part
also namely in most cases
furthermore in other words usually
moreover Result/consequence Highlighting
what is more so in particular
in addition therefore particularly
besides as a result/consequence especially
above all accordingly mainly
as well (as) consequently Reformulation
in the same way because of this/that in other words
not only ... but also thus rather
Similarity hence to put it more simply
equally for this/that reason Expressing an alternative
likewise so that alternatively
similarly in that case rather
correspondingly under these circumstances on the other hand
in the same way Deduction the alternative is
Transition to new point then another possibility would be
now, in other words Contrast
as far as x is concerned in that case instead
with regard/reference to otherwise conversely
as for ... this implies that ... on the contrary
it follows that if so/not in contrast
turning to Stating the obvious in comparison
Summary obviously Concession (sth unexpected)
in conclusion clearly however
to conclude naturally even though
in brief of course however much
to summarise as can be expected nevertheless
overall surely still
therefore after all yet
Here are just a few examples of some of the words in action:
REINFORCEMENT
Desktop computers are cheaper and more reliable than laptops; furthermore, they are more flexible.
RESULT/CONSEQUENCE
Prices fell by more than 20% last year. As a result, sales increased by 15%.
GENERALISING
On the whole, his speech was well received, despite some complaints from new members.
CONTRAST
The South East of the UK often has the coldest weather in the winter. Conversely, the North West of Scotland frequently has the mildest temperatures.
CONCESSION
It was a very expensive holiday, the weather was bad and the people weren’t very friendly. Nevertheless, we would probably go back to the same place.
Top of page
Transition word exercise
Always ask yourself what the exact relationship is between the sentences or parts of sentences. Are you leading to the result of something? Are you making a deduction? Are you introducing some contradictory evidence or ideas? Your choice of word or phrase obviously depends on this. And always check in a good dictionary if you're not quite sure about a word's use or its position in a sentence. Remember that punctuation will affect what you use.
Insert the best alternative
1 Polls show that Tony Blair is the most popular Prime Minister this century. ______________ , there are even members of his own party who are uneasy with his approach.
In particular However For instance
2 There are some slight variations in temperature, but ________________ 26 to 27ºC should be expected.
consequently otherwise as a rule
3 The two main Channel Islands, ________________ Jersey and Guernsey, are much closer to France than to England.
for example namely in particular
4 It was announced that nurses' working hours would be increased by 25%. ______________ , even fewer trainee nurses are expected to join the profession.
As a result So that Likewise
5 Sales of CDs have experienced a small but steady fall over the past 12 months. _____________ , vinyl records have seen an increase in their share of the market, up to 1.7%.
Above all Correspondingly In contrast
6 The Vice Chancellor explained that in light of the current financial climate and because of unexpected bad debts, it would be necessary to peg salary levels at their current level for all grades of staff. ______________ , no-one was getting a pay rise.
Nevertheless In other words Similarly
7 It is clear, therefore, that the situation in Brazil will improve only slowly. ______________ the economic problems being experienced in Japan, the outlook is slightly more optimistic.
Furthermore In comparison With reference to
8 In order to try to reduce car use in the inner cities, the government has announced new restrictions on company parking spaces and ______________ , a new tax on individual car use.
as well as in addition in the same way
9 Essays must be handed in by the deadline, ______________ they will not be marked.
obviously otherwise as a result
10 ______________ it has been shown that fractures can occur at even relatively low pressures, the use of the material should not be completely discounted.
Nevertheless Because Even though
Writing abstracts
An abstract is a concise summary of a body of information should as a report, dissertation, thesis or article. Its purpose is to make it possible for potential readers to quickly find out if the work is relevant to their needs and worth reading.
Writers of articles for journals will always be asked to provide an abstract, and these are usually included on CD-ROM and online databases for worldwide reference.
You may be asked to include an abstract at the beginning of a piece of academic work, although confusingly this may also sometimes be called a summary, executive summary or executive abstract. Check with your department which term you should use.
There are in fact two different kinds of abstract: the descriptive abstract and the informative abstract.
Descriptive abstracts
These provide a description of the report’s main topic and purpose, together with an overview of the contents. They are usually very short – just a sentence or two – and may even appear on the title page (or at the beginning of a journal article). All this type of abstract does is give a very general idea of what the writing is about; it like a slightly extended title, or a topic sentence in an introduction. Consequently, it is not necessary to summarise any details or conclusions found in the text.
A descriptive abstract will look something like this:
The research analyzes the different approaches to reducing traffic congestion in the UK and provides conclusions and recommendations for future implementation.
However, if you are asked to provide an abstract here at Birmingham City University, you will probably need to produce an informative type.
Informative abstracts
As the name implies, informative abstracts should inform the reader: they should make clear what the research is about and give the key information from each section of the report; indicate how it was carried out; and summarise what the main findings and conclusions are. You should not, however, indicate the structure of the writing – this would be included in your introduction.
As suggested by Reading University(www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~kcshuwil/cme/abstract.html), the essential parts of an informative abstract are:
• Background: A simple opening sentence or two placing the work in context.
• Aims: One or two sentences giving the purpose of the work.
• Method(s): One or two sentences explaining what was done.
• Results: One or two sentences indicating the main findings.
• Conclusions: One sentence giving the most important consequence of the work.
They also give the following advice:
• Do not commence with "this paper…", "this report…" or similar. It is better to write about the research than about the paper. Similarly, do not explain the sections or parts of the paper.
• Avoid sentences that end in "…is described", "…is reported", "…is analysed" or similar. These are simply too vague to be informative.
• Do not begin sentences with "it is suggested that…", "it is believed that…", "it is felt that…" or similar. In every case, the four words can be omitted without damaging the essential message.
• Do not write in the first person in any form. Thus, not only should you avoid "I", but also "we", "the author", "the writer" and so on. Again, this is because the abstract should be about the research, not about the act of writing.
Other useful advice:
• Check with your tutor what length of abstract is expected; normally they will be short and concise, with the result that the sentences will be fairly dense and information-heavy.
• Don’t include any secondary information, and take out any unnecessary words, obviously keeping everything grammatical.
• Don’t include any references in the abstract, but do include relevant numerical data.
Here is a sample abstract
(Source: http://www.sr.bham.ac.uk/skills/Writing/abstrax.html)
ABSTRACT
Computerized speech recognition takes advantage of the most
natural form of communication, the human voice. During
speech, sound is generated by the vocal cords and by air
rushing from the lungs. If the vocal cords vibrate, a voiced
sound is produced; otherwise, the sound is unvoiced. The
main problem in speech recognition is that no two voices
produce their sounds alike and that an individual voice va-
ries in different conditions. Because voices do vary and
because words blend together in a continuous stream in
natural speech, most recognition systems require that each
speaker train the machine to his or her voice and that words
have at least one-tenth of a second pause between them. Such
a system is called an isolated word recognition system and
con sists of three major components that process human
speech: (1) the preprocessor which removes irregula rities
from the speech signal and then breaks it up into parts; (2)
the feature extractor which extracts 32 key features from
the signal; and (3) the classification phase which
identifies the spoken word and includes the training mode
and reference pattern memory. Spoken words are identified on
the basis of a certain decision algorithm, some of which
involve dynamic programming, zero crossing rate, linear pre-
dictive coding, and the use of state diagram.
Voice recognition systems offer many applications including
data entry, freedom for mobility, security uses, telephone
access, and helpful devices for the handicapped. However,
these same systems also face problems such as poor
recognition accuracy, loss of privacy among those who use
them, and limited vocabulary sizes. The goal of the
industry is the development of speaker-independent systems
that can recognize continuous human speech regardless of
the speaker and that can continually improve their
vocabulary size and recognition accuracy.
Writers of articles for journals will always be asked to provide an abstract, and these are usually included on CD-ROM and online databases for worldwide reference.
You may be asked to include an abstract at the beginning of a piece of academic work, although confusingly this may also sometimes be called a summary, executive summary or executive abstract. Check with your department which term you should use.
There are in fact two different kinds of abstract: the descriptive abstract and the informative abstract.
Descriptive abstracts
These provide a description of the report’s main topic and purpose, together with an overview of the contents. They are usually very short – just a sentence or two – and may even appear on the title page (or at the beginning of a journal article). All this type of abstract does is give a very general idea of what the writing is about; it like a slightly extended title, or a topic sentence in an introduction. Consequently, it is not necessary to summarise any details or conclusions found in the text.
A descriptive abstract will look something like this:
The research analyzes the different approaches to reducing traffic congestion in the UK and provides conclusions and recommendations for future implementation.
However, if you are asked to provide an abstract here at Birmingham City University, you will probably need to produce an informative type.
Informative abstracts
As the name implies, informative abstracts should inform the reader: they should make clear what the research is about and give the key information from each section of the report; indicate how it was carried out; and summarise what the main findings and conclusions are. You should not, however, indicate the structure of the writing – this would be included in your introduction.
As suggested by Reading University(www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~kcshuwil/cme/abstract.html), the essential parts of an informative abstract are:
• Background: A simple opening sentence or two placing the work in context.
• Aims: One or two sentences giving the purpose of the work.
• Method(s): One or two sentences explaining what was done.
• Results: One or two sentences indicating the main findings.
• Conclusions: One sentence giving the most important consequence of the work.
They also give the following advice:
• Do not commence with "this paper…", "this report…" or similar. It is better to write about the research than about the paper. Similarly, do not explain the sections or parts of the paper.
• Avoid sentences that end in "…is described", "…is reported", "…is analysed" or similar. These are simply too vague to be informative.
• Do not begin sentences with "it is suggested that…", "it is believed that…", "it is felt that…" or similar. In every case, the four words can be omitted without damaging the essential message.
• Do not write in the first person in any form. Thus, not only should you avoid "I", but also "we", "the author", "the writer" and so on. Again, this is because the abstract should be about the research, not about the act of writing.
Other useful advice:
• Check with your tutor what length of abstract is expected; normally they will be short and concise, with the result that the sentences will be fairly dense and information-heavy.
• Don’t include any secondary information, and take out any unnecessary words, obviously keeping everything grammatical.
• Don’t include any references in the abstract, but do include relevant numerical data.
Here is a sample abstract
(Source: http://www.sr.bham.ac.uk/skills/Writing/abstrax.html)
ABSTRACT
Computerized speech recognition takes advantage of the most
natural form of communication, the human voice. During
speech, sound is generated by the vocal cords and by air
rushing from the lungs. If the vocal cords vibrate, a voiced
sound is produced; otherwise, the sound is unvoiced. The
main problem in speech recognition is that no two voices
produce their sounds alike and that an individual voice va-
ries in different conditions. Because voices do vary and
because words blend together in a continuous stream in
natural speech, most recognition systems require that each
speaker train the machine to his or her voice and that words
have at least one-tenth of a second pause between them. Such
a system is called an isolated word recognition system and
con sists of three major components that process human
speech: (1) the preprocessor which removes irregula rities
from the speech signal and then breaks it up into parts; (2)
the feature extractor which extracts 32 key features from
the signal; and (3) the classification phase which
identifies the spoken word and includes the training mode
and reference pattern memory. Spoken words are identified on
the basis of a certain decision algorithm, some of which
involve dynamic programming, zero crossing rate, linear pre-
dictive coding, and the use of state diagram.
Voice recognition systems offer many applications including
data entry, freedom for mobility, security uses, telephone
access, and helpful devices for the handicapped. However,
these same systems also face problems such as poor
recognition accuracy, loss of privacy among those who use
them, and limited vocabulary sizes. The goal of the
industry is the development of speaker-independent systems
that can recognize continuous human speech regardless of
the speaker and that can continually improve their
vocabulary size and recognition accuracy.
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